Robert Bakker, Famous Paleontologist

Name:  Robert BakkerBorn: 1945Nationality:  American About Robert Bakker Probably no paleontologist alive today has had as much of an impact on popular culture as Robert Bakker. Bakker was one of the technical advisers for the original Jurassic Park movie (along with two other famous figures from the dinosaur world, Jack Horner and the science writer Don Lessem), and a character in the sequel The Lost World, Dr. Robert Burke, was inspired by him. He has also written a best-selling novel (Raptor Red, about a day in the life of a Utahraptor), as well as the 1986 nonfiction book The Dinosaur Heresies. Among his fellow paleontologists, Bakker is best known for his theory (inspired by his mentor John H. Ostrom) that dinosaurs were warm-blooded, pointing to the active behavior of raptors like Deinonychus and the physiology of sauropods, whose cold-blooded hearts, Bakker argues, wouldnt have been capable of pumping blood all the way up to their heads, 30 or 40 feet above the ground. Although  Bakker is known for stating his views  forcefully, not all of his fellow scientists are convinced, some of them suggesting that dinosaurs may have had intermediate or homeothermic metabolisms rather than being strictly warm- or cold-blooded. ​Bakker is a bit of maverick in another way: in addition to being the curator of paleontology at the Houston Museum of Natural Science, hes also an ecumenical Pentecostal minister who likes to argue against interpreting biblical texts literally, preferring to see the New and Old Testaments as guides to ethics rather than to historical or scientific  facts. Unusually for a paleontologist who has had such an outsized impact on his field, Bakker isnt especially well known for his fieldwork; for instance, he hasnt discovered or named any dinosaurs (or prehistoric animals) of note, though he did have a hand in investigating Allosaurus nesting sites  in Wyoming  (and concluding that the hatchlings of these predators received at least a modicum of parental attention). Bakkers influence can be traced above all to The Dinosaur Heresies; many of the theories he promotes in this book (including his speculation that dinosaurs grew much more rapidly than had been previously believed) have since been widely accepted by both the scientific establishment and the general public.

Spatial And Spatial Analysis - 1565 Words

In addition to the endogeneity problem, researchers need to consider a spatial spillover effect when using spatial data. Generally, it is expected that neighboring areas have a stronger interaction than geographically distant areas. However, it is likely that unobserved household and neighborhood characteristics are shared over geographically adjacent neighborhoods, which can cause a spatial autocorrelation problem. Though spatially correlated errors do not result in biased estimates, these errors can produce inefficient estimates and biased standard errors (Anselin, 1988). The spatial econometric technique allows for an examination of the role played by spatial effects and geographical spillovers by considering the spatial characteristics of neighborhood data. In this study, spatial dependence is presented based on a contiguity-based binary weight matrix. To diagnose the existence of spatial dependence in model residuals, we use Moran’s I statistics for residuals, Lagrange multiplier (LM) tests for the lag dependence and error dependence, and robust LM tests for the lag dependence and error dependence with the fixed effect model. According to Anselin and Rey (1991), Moran’s I is commonly used for detecting spatial dependence, but it cannot determine what type of spatial dependences (e.g. spatial lag dependence or spatial error dependence) exists in regression residuals. Therefore, it cannot provide information on which model is appropriate in explaining the spatialShow MoreRelatedGeographic Information Science And Systems1738 Words   |  7 Pagesbe an extremely powerful tool when properly applied to real world situations. GIS is commonly thought of as map making because it deals with spatial analysis, but data can be manage d and manipulated to create a vast array of different outputs including charts and graphs. 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Marketing research assume you are developing Free Essays

Mc Daniel and Gates (1999) have given a ten-point procedure for developing a questionnaire. This procedure can be adapted and used in designing a questionnaire for the newly developed sandwich by MacDonalds. These authors have emphasized the need for questionnaires to be developed properly, otherwise incomplete and inaccurate data shall be generated. We will write a custom essay sample on Marketing research: assume you are developing or any similar topic only for you Order Now They specifically stressed the need for three important questions to be answered adequately by the would-be questionnaire designer or developer. These questions are as follows: (a) Does the questionnaire to be developed for MacDonald’s sandwich provide the necessary decision-making information for management? For example, can it tell management about the ingredients that should make-up the sandwich and at what price it should be sold to the public? (b) Does it consider the respondent to whom the questionnaire shall be administered to? If respondents are taken into account, the questions would be tailored to their level of comprehension. (c)Does the questionnaire meet editing, coding and data processing needs? It behooves questionnaire developers to take these concerns into account before designing the questions. Ideally, the questionnaire should be pre-tested to see how the questions are understood by the respondents. Questionnaire development Processes According McDonald and Gates (1999) these ten steps should be followed in designing a questionnaire: 1. Set objectives of the study and consider resources and constraints of the study   (MacDonald’s sandwich )- Every study as such the one on sandwich must have a definite objective. This objective should be clearly spelt out. A meaningful objective is one which is attainable within the resources at the disposal of the company commissioning the research study. For example, an objective can be to establish how the newly developed sandwich should be priced. Possible constraints of the study also need to be identified and factored into the process of developing and administering the questionnaire. For example, if the intended market of the sandwich is noted for apparent difficulty in securing respondents to participate in research study, that constraint should be taken into account. In such situations, it may be needful to increase the incentives given to respondents to encourage participation. 2. Determine what data collection procedures to use  Ã‚   – Questionnaires can be administered by telephone, email, or in-person. Each approach employed influences the design used. It also has a cost implication, which must be taken into account. 3.Come out with the question response format – After zeroing in on the method for collecting the data, the actual format should be determined. Generally, three types of response formats can be used. These include open-ended questions, where the respondent is given freewill to respond to questions in his own words. There are also the close-ended questions, where   respondents are allowed to select from a list of answers. Thirdly, there is the scaled-response questions, where multiple-choice questions are given to respondents to pick answers from. 4. Make a decision on how the question should be worded – McDonald and Gates (1999) have given four guidelines that should govern this process. These are (a) the wording should be clear and to the point. (b) Select words that   do not preempt other answers over others or that systematically biase the research outputs. (c) consider the ability of the typical respondents to answer the questions and (d) take into account the willingness of the respondents to answer the questions. 5. Determine the arrangement of   the questions – The questions should be arranged in such a manner that establishes a flow. For example, questions that warm up the respondents should come before those considered difficult and complex. 6.   Assess the questionnaire – Determine the relevance and longevity of questions and the ability of questions to answer the research objectives. 7. Seek the consent of relevant stakeholders – Allow all relevant stakeholders to review the questionnaire and give their approval before administering it in the field. By this approach, their support and cooperation is gained. 8. Give it a trial and revise it accordingly – Before administering the questionnaire, it must be field tried or tested. Here, limited number of persons is allowed to answer the questions and how they understood or perceived the questions are evaluated. Their comments are then factored into the final questionnaire. 9.Develop the final copy of the questionnaire – At this juncture, a final copy of the questionnaire is developed. This copy incorporates both the comments of management, sponsors and respondents. 10. Administer the questionnaire – The questionnaire is given out to the intended population for which information is needed.   Instructions to guide   supervisors and interviewers should accompany the questionnaires prepared. Conclusion By adopting this ten-point approach to developing and implementing questionnaires, it should be possible for the needed information to guide managerial decision-making on the newly developed sandwich of MacDonald’s to be obtained. Reference McDaniel, C. and Gates, R. (1999). Contemporary Marketing Research, 4th Edition, South-Western College Publishing, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.             How to cite Marketing research: assume you are developing, Essays

Discriminability and Stimulus Generalization

Question: Describe about the Discriminability and Stimulus Generalization. Answer: Introduction The study is based on Stimulus generalization. It is a kind of learned response related to a stimulus that is similar but of different stimuli in the environment. Stimulus generalization measures the extent to which the transfer has occurred. The differential response of animals to different stimuli involves the difference in degrees like the intensity, the size, the wavelength is said to be based on the relational character of the environment of stimulus (Kalish Guttmann, 1956). The subjects reinforce for response that has occurred in the availability of a specific training stimulus. In case, any of the stimulus are not present than then responding cannot be reinforced. In the process of stimulus generalization the subjects or the animals are to be present in a range of stimuli. The stimuli should include the original stimulus and some more similar stimulus with variant stimuli situated on continuum. It means that the stimuli have to be of different nature like difference in wavele ngth of light. When the process is carried out, all the behavior is on Extinction and the response rate is measured for each of the stimulus located on the continuum. In general language, differential reinforcement is the rescheduling of the reinforcement rate in the existence of training stimulus, and a high or low variant rate of reinforcement in the existence of variant training stimulus. The original research by Guttman and Kalish was remarkable as it was the prime methodological contribution. Intermittent reinforcement in training, and the repeated presentation of test stimuli in randomly permuted orders during extinction. In the experiment, we will examine the extent to which stimulus generalization would occur for two different stimuli, when each of the stimulus is related to a different reinforcement rate. The experiment is carried out on two conditions. First condition runs for fourteen sessions. It is the Discrimination training. The condition takes Pigeon as the subjects. They are trained to produce a response to a key which lits with 1 wavelength and is reinforced corresponding to the VI 30-s schedule. The pigeons are also trained to produce a response for the same key but with a variant wavelength and is reinforced corresponding to VI 150-s schedule. Here, the focus would be on the response of pigeons to the different wavelength. The second condition runs on two sessions. It is Stimulus generalisation test. The behavior for this condition is EXT. The pigeons here would be subjected to a series of wavelengths including from the condition 1 and some more slightly variant wavelengths. In total, th e pigeons will be subjected to around 10 wavelengths (Kailash Guttmann, 1957). The focus of the stimulus generalization test is to see the difference in the rate of response between the two training stimuli that were differentially reinforced. The shape or the pattern of generalization gradient is also looked upon. The generalization gradient is formed via the different rate in response with variant stimuli located on the continuum. Method Subject: In the experiment, pigeons were used as the subject. They species of the pigeons used were Homing pigeons. The experiment used six Homing pigeons. Each pigeon was labeled with an alphabet and a digit. The alphabet assigned to the pigeons will tell about the group they belong to. The digit assigned to the pigeon will tell the subject number each of the pigeon has. Like for example if the Pigeon is labeled A1 that says the pigeon belongs to Group A and is Subject 1. The pigeons were divided into two groups. Each group had three pigeons. The subjects were working in turns for the experiment. They were put in 1 of the 3 chambers for once in a day. The labeling given to the pigeons were as follows: Group A: 211, 212, 213 Group B: 214, 215, 216 All the pigeons used for the experiment were maintained at a weight of 10g of their set weight. The set weight of the pigeons was measured by 85% of their free feeding weight. Free feeding weight here meant the weight of each of the pigeons when the amount of food given to them was not under control. The pigeon had access to water and grit. They were kept in the home cages for all the time and they were fed there itself. The experiment was conducted in different cages (Thomas King, 1959). Generally, the pigeons are experimental subjects. They are given food during the course of the lab experiment. In case, the weight of the pigeon becomes too low then they were given some extra food. Apparatus The major apparatus for the lab experiment was the Experimental Chamber. The chamber has measurements 300mm by 250mm. The depth of the experimental chamber is 290mm. It has Back wall and floor. The floor of the experimental chamber was build from iron bars. The front and the back walls of the experimental chamber were build from Perspex. The other walls of the chamber were made of sheet metal. The house light of the experiment chamber was on the back wall (Margolius, 1955). The response panel of the experimental chamber has keys made up of plastic discs and are glowing with a coloured light. The three keys are of 25mm and are a situated at a distance of 60mm from one another. There is square hole in the response panel and is known as Magazine Aperture. It is 70mm by 50mm. The magazine aperture lights up during reinforcement. A hopper is present behind the magazine and is made up of grain sits. The hopper was to be raised for reinforcement. The hopper consists of grain sits is raised for reinforcement and the magazine aperture lights up. At the same plastic keys discs are unlit. The room located next to the experimental has a computer running. The computer is IBM Med-PC IV. The main function of computer here was to control and record up all the experimental events including the response data. There are three pigeon chamber for six pigeons as two pigeons belonging to the two different groups were kept in one chamber. For example in the first chamber pigeon labelled Group A-211 and Group B- 214 were kept. Procedure In the lab experiment conducted there were two conditions. The first condition was discrimination training and the second condition was Stimuli generalization. In the first condition two components were taken with multiple schedules. The first component took up the Pigeon as the subjects who were trained to respond to a key lit with one wavelength(colour) and reinforced according to a VI 30-s schedule (Hoing Urcuioli, 1981). The wavelength for the first component was 520-nm light. In the second component, the same pigeons were trained to respond to the same key lit with a different wavelength and reinforced according to a VI 150-s schedule. The wavelength of light for this was 570-nm. Both the component was of 30 seconds duration. They were separated by a 10-s inter-component interval (ICI). Both the components were run for 48 times in each of the session. In total, there were 96 sessions for both the components. In the second condition the two-component multiple schedule from the baseline condition was repeated three times. The left over test was conducted for EXT. The pigeons here were subjected to a series of wavelengths including from the condition 1 and some more slightly variant wavelengths (Wagner et al., 1968). The pigeons were subjected to different wavelengths in a random order for about 30 seconds. They were separated by a 10-s inter-component interval. In total, the pigeons will be subjected to around 10 wavelengths. The wavelength used for this experiment was from 500 nm to 590 nm. In this condition two sessions were performed. For each of the sessions response rate was to be calculate at each wavelength. After calculating, the response rate was 4.5 minutes at each wavelength per session. The two conditions were based on the Kalish and Guttmann studies but were different in terms the reinforcement schedules, component length, number of component per sessions, and the Similarity b etween the baseline and the generalisation test. The procedure was carried out keeping in my mind the Kalish and Guttmann. The basis of the lab experiment was same but it was carried out by changing certain conditions. References Guttman, N. Kalish, H.I. (1956). Discriminability and stimulus generalization.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51 (1), 79-88. Honig, W.K. Urcuioli, P.J. (1981). The legacy of Guttman and Kalish (1956): 25 years of research on stimulus generalization. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 36, 405-445. Kalish, H. I., Guttman, N. (1957).Stimulus generalization after equal training on two stimuli.Journal of Experimental Psychology,53(2), 139. Margolius, G. (1955). Stimulus generalization of an instrumental response as a function of the number of reinforced trials. /. exp. Psychol.,,49,105-111. Thomas, D. R., King, R. A. (1959). Stimulus generalization as a function of level of motivation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57, 323-328. Wagner, A. R., et al. (1968). Stimulus selection in animal discrimination learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 76, 171-180